Friday, October 29, 2010

Week 10


SA node
            starts the heart beat
            Automatic
            Sends stimulus that causes both atria to contract at the same time
            What pacemakers do

AV node
            Close to coronary sinus
            Between atria and ventricles
            Right & left sides are bundled up and branch out over each ventricle
            Purkinje fibers transmit the impulse that cause the ventricles to contract at the same time

Contractions start at the apex and travel to the base

Blood Vessels
            3 Layers in a vessel
                        called tunics
            Tunica Interna
                        Thin surface layer of endothelium & elastic CT
            Tunica Media
                        Smooth muscle with some elastic CT
                        Circular arrangement
                        Contractions constrict flow of blood, increasing Blood Pressure (BP)
                        Relaxing dilates the vessels decreasing BP
            Tunica Externa
                        Thin white fibrous elastic CT

Ellastic Arteries
            Conducting Vessels
            Aorta is an example
            Expand and recoil
            Delivers to muscular arteries

Musclar arteries
            Conduct blood to location or distribute
            Continuous flow

Autoregulation
            Automatic local adjustment of blood flow in a given region of the body in            
            response to needs of over tissues à need for oxygen is stimulus

Colateral Circulation
            2 arteries serving the same location

Anastomosis
            2 arteries joining at distal end

Infarction
            Death of cell due to lack of oxygen

NO VALVES IN ARTERIES

Capillaries
            Layer of simple squamous epithelium
            Slows the flow of blood
            Purpose of the cardiovascular system is to serve these
            More numerous in tissues that need/use more oxygen
            Can be closed of with sphincters
            Interconnector between arterioles and venules

Veins
            3 layers
            Same as arteries but less distinct
            Minimal elastic tissue
            Thinner walls
            Greater diameter
            Vena comitans
                        2 veins following a common artery
            Surface veins
                        Cutaneous
            Valves are use to carry blood up against the force of gravity
            Low Pressure
            Pressure gradients help move blood
            Skeletal muscles can act as a pump
            Respiratory can act as a pump

Pulmonary Circuit
            Receives oxygen deficient blood
            Purpose is to oxygenate blood

            Begins Right Ventricle
                        Conus arteriosus
            Ends in the Left Atrium

Pulmonary trunk
            In front of ascending aorta
            To the left & under the arch
            Short wide vessel
            Is an Artery

            Divides into right and left arteries
            Right side delivers blood to right side of lung
                        Branches in lower and superiors branches
                                    Lower branch is larger and delivers to lower lobes
                                    Superior branch delivers to upper lobe
            Left side delivers blood to left side of lung
                        Branches into lower and superior
                                    Lower branch delivers to lower lobe
                                    Superior branch delivers to upper lobe
                                   
            2 Pulmonary veins from each lung empty into left atrium

Systemic Circuit
            More extensive
            Starts in Left ventricle
            Ends in right atrium

            Dispenses from Aorta
            Delivers Oxygen to all systemic arteries

            Aorta has 3 regions
                        Ascending
                        Arch
                        Descending (2 parts)
                                     Thorassic
                                    Abdominal

Ascending Aorta          
            2 coronary arteries
            only branches of ascending Aorta
            Right side receives first
            Left side divides more
                        Anterior ventricular artery
                        Posterior ventricular artery
                        Circumflex artery         
                                   
Arch of the Aorta
            Region that leaves the pericardial sac
            Leave out & heads back
            Ends ~ T4
            3 branches on the top of the arch
                        1st and largest is Brachiocephalic
                        Left Common Carotid 2nd
                        Left Subclavian 3rd

Descending Aorta
            Begins ~ T4 ~ T6

            Thorassic branch
            Has parietal & visceral branches
           
            Abdomincal branch
            Has parietal & visceral & terminal branches

Systemic veins
            Drainage system of blood
            Lots of valves to prevent backflow of blood
            Brings back nutrients waste and lacks oxygens
            Tributaries instead of branches
            Tributaries of origin
                        2 veins merging into 1 common vein
            Superficial
                        Under skin
                        No companion arteries
                        Empty into deep veins
            Deep
                        Travel with artery
                        Artery usually has the same name
            Venus Sinus
                        Space between layer of dura mater (outer layer)
                        Endothelium lined
                        Empty into internal jugular vein

Coronay Sinus
            Heart wall return

Superior Vena Cava  à SVC
            7cm long
            Receives blood from right and left brachiocephalic
                        Right side is shorter
            Receives blood from head neck thorax and upper extremities

Inferior Vena Cava à IVC
            Recieves blood from trunk and lower limbs
           
All 3 empty into Right Atrium


Portal Sytems or Hephatic (Liver) system
            Artery
            Arteriole
            Capillary (sinusoid)
            Venule
            Capillary (sinusoid)
            Venule
            Vein
           
            Recieves blood from digestive tract and spleen
            Portal vein takes blood to liver
            Feeds capillary beds
                        Which filter the blood
                        What gets filtered depends on what the body needs at the moment

Fetal Circulation
            5th week the fetal heart can start beating
            Foramen Ovale
                        Oval shaped hole between right and left atrium
                        Allows blood to skip going to the lungs since a baby doesn’t use it lungs
                        Decreases in size after birth
                        Becomes fossa ovale

            Large Eustachian valve in IVC
                        Prevents blood from going into ventricle prematurely

            Ductus Arteriosus
                        Allows blood in right ventricle to skip lung
                        Becomes ligamentum arteriosum

            2 umbilical arteries
                        lack oxygen
                        goes to placenta to be oxygenated and get nutrients
                        becomes lateral umbilical ligament

            1 umbilical vein
                        goes back to liver/IVC
                        becomes ligamentum teres

            Ductus venosus
                        Between umbilical vein & IVC
                        Skips liver
                        Becomes ligamentum venosum

Friday, October 8, 2010

week 8


Circulatory System
            Internal environment provides the fluid environment needed
                        ECF or interstitial fluid
            Main function is to transport blood & lymph
                        Blood carries nutrients oxygen enzymes hormones among other things
            Closed system
                        Whole blood contained entirely within heart & vessels
                        Lymph picks up unneeded fluid & returns it to the lymphatic system for                                      cleaning and filtering which is also a part of bodily defense

            FUNCTIONS
                        Maintains homestasis
                        Transportation of oxygen, water, hormones, enzymes & antibodies
                        Regulation
                        Coordination
                        Water & other substance regulation
                        Temperature control
                        Phagocytosis à white blood cells

2 parts to the circulatory system
            Cardiovascular
            Lymphatic

Cardiovascular System

            Adequate blood needed for all body systems/organs at different times for different                     reasons making the circulatory very complex since it can redirect blood                               flow to parts of the body that need or don’t need it very quickly

            Ateries
            Arterioles
                        Both carry blood away from the heart and have higher pressure
            Veins
            Venules
                        Both carry blood to the heart and have a lower pressure
            Capillaries
                        What the circulatory system is designed around
                        Is the exchange zone for bloods nutrients and the organs used nutrients
                                    Blood moves slowly through capillaries to allow time for nutrients                                                           and waste to move into and out of the blood for use or                                                  transport

Internal inviroment
                        Blood
                                    Fluid & formed elements that are confined to organs of                                                              cardiovascular system
                        Tissue Fluid
                                    Interstitial fluid or ECF
                        Lymph
                                    Fluid in vessels of lymphatic system

Blood in detail

            Should have a pH value of 7.35 ~ 7.45
                        Making it a slightly basic fluid under normal conditions
            ~ 8% of body weight
            4 is normal Relative viscosity
                        depends on hematocrit temperature & flow rate
            4 ~ 6 Liters of blood on average in an adult

Plasma in detail
            90% water
            7 ~ 9% proteins
                        fibrin is a protein that helps blood clot
                                    made from fibrinogen
                        serum is plasma with Fibrin removed à all proteins except those used in                                               blood clotting
                                    55% of  all proteins are Serum Albumen (egg white) which is what                                             makes blood viscous & regulates blood volume
                                    38% are immunoglobulens à the bodies defense         
            1% salt sugars fats urea & other thing
            accounts for 50 ~ 60% of blood volume
            other 40 ~ 50% are formed elements
                        formed elements of the blood are erythrocytes (red blood cells),                                                leukocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets)
           
Eurythrocytes
            Red blood cell simply
            Mature cells lack a nucleus
            Hemoglobin gives the red color
                        Oxygen binds to Iron in the blood to be carried
            4 ~ 6 million/mm^3

Hematopoiesis
            The production of red blood cells
            Occurs in red bone marrow
            2 million/second produced to keep up with the bodies demand

Stem cell: One of the human body's master cells, with the ability to grow into any one of             the body's more than 200 cell types.

Reticulocyte
            Immature red blood cell
            Leaves bone marrow & enters blood stream & losses its nucleus

Luekocyte
            True cell
            6,000 ~ 10,000 /mm^3 of blood
            2 groups
                        Granular à granulocyte à white blood cell
                                    Has staining granules
                                    Polymorphonuclear
                                    Nuetrophil
                                    Eosinophil
                                    Basophil
                        Agranular
                                    Monocyte
                                                Can develop in macrophages
                                    Lymphocyte
                                                B cells
                                                T cells
                                                NK cells

Thrombocytes
            Platelets
            250,000 / mm^3 of blood
            fragments of megakaryocyte cell
            rounded
            colorless
            sticky à to adhere to cuts or breaks in a vessel

Hemostasis
            Stopping of blood flow
            Smooth muscle spasms to constrict blood flow
            Platelet plug should form at the site of the damage to start to the repairing process

THE HEART
            2 purposes
                        Completes the Pulmonary circuit for oxygenation of blood
                        Completes the systemic circuit for getting the rest of the body the it needs
            Double Pump
            Maintains flow & pressure
            70 ~ 75 beats/contractions a minute in the average human
            highly efficient to maintain its output
            weigh 340 grams ~ 11 ounces
            12cm long à 9cm wide à 6cm thick
                        less than 648 cm^3 because its not a perfect cube
                        Roughly the size of ones clinched fist
            Located in the mediastynum
            2/3 of it lies to the left of the bodies midline
            1/3 of it lies to the right of the bodies midline
            Posterior to the sternum
            Anterior to the vertebrae & descending aorta & esophagus
            Parietal pericardium adheres to the diaphragm
            Medial to the lungs

            Endocardium
                        Fibrous tissue that supports the endothelium
                        Inner most layer that lines the heart
            Myocardium
                        CT & cardiac muscles
                        Supports lymph
                        Thinner in the walls of the Atrias
                        Right Ventricle 1/3 inch thick
                        Left Ventricle 1 inch thick
                        Arrangement of whirls helps to empty blood
                        Not smooth
                                    Trabeculae carneae
                                                are rounded or irregular muscular columns which project                                                           from the whole of the inner surface of the ventricle

            Capillary bed
                        A dense network of tiny blood vessels that enables blood to fill a tissue or                                  organ

            Epicardium
                        Visceral layer of pericardium
                        the outermost of the three layers of tissue that form the heart wall
                        The inner layer of the pericardium that is in contact with the surface of the                                  heart
           
            Parietal cardium
                        Outer layer of pericardium
                        forms the sac and is lined with a serous membrane. Also called heart sac

            Pericardial cavity
                        Lies between the epicardium and parietal cardium
                        Serous or watery membrane
                        Serous fluid is used as lubrication for the heart
                                    Provides almost 0 friction

            4 chambers to the Heart
                        2 atrium both are superior used to receive blood
                        2 ventricles both are inferior use to pump blood away

            the hearts veins & artery locations
                        Coronary sulcus
                                    Lies between the atrium & ventricle
                        Anterior interventricular sulcus
                                    Between the ventricles
                        Posterior interventricularu sulcus
                                    Between the ventricles

            RIGHT ATRIUM
                        Gets blood returning from systemic route
                        3 openings
                                    Superior vena cava
                                                Superior & posterior
                                                Returns blood from shoulders and up
                                                Directed downward
                                                No valve
                                    Inferior vena cava
                                                Posterior & inferior
                                                Directed upward
                                                Brings in blood from the trunk down
                                                Has foramen ovale
                                                            Fossa ovalus forms after birth
                                                Eustachion valve
                                                            Only seems to be active while a fetus
                                                            No known function for adults
                                    Coronary Sinus
                                                Large veinous
                                                Brings blood back to the heart from the heart
                                                Thebesian valve
           
            RIGHT VENTRICLE
                        Opening between the right atrium & right ventricle
                        Controlled by Tricuspid valve
                                    Tough fibrous tissue
                                    Opens during diastole (relaxation)
                                    Closes duing systole (contraction)
                                    Preventing backflow
                                                Has 3 chordae tendoneae
                                                Attached to 3 papillary muscles
                        Opens to pulmonary trunk
                                    Flow controlled by pulmonary semilunar valve

            LEFT ATRIUM
                        Small in size
                        Walls are thicker than right atrium
                        4 pulmonary veins
                        No valves

            LEFT VENTRICLE
                        Same size as right ventricle
                        Walls are 3x thicker than the right side
                                    To accommodate the higher pressure needed
                        Opening between left ventricle & atrium
                        Controlled by Bicuspid valve (mitral)
                                    2 flaps
                                    2 tendons
                                    2 papillary muscles
                                    All stronger and thicker than the right ventricle
                        Pumps into the aorta
                        Controlled by Aortic Semilunar Valve
                                    Opens with systole
                        Aortic sinuses
                                    For coronary arteries
                                    Receives blood in Diastole


Tuesday, October 5, 2010

Need to know Muscles

Muscle Name Origin Insertion Action
Trapezius Superior nuchal line of occipital bone, ligamentum nuchae and spines of C7 & all thorassic vertebrea Clavicle & acrominion & spine of scapula  Adduction, rotation, retraction, elevation, and depression of scapula
Deltoid clavicle, acromion of scapula, spine of the scapula deltoid tuberosity of humerus shoulder abduction, flexion and extension, rotation
Pectoralis Major Clavicle sternum & costal cartilages of 2nd -> 6th ~ 7th rib Greater tubercle and lateral lip of the intertubercular sulcus of Humerus Clavicular head: flexes the humerus
Sternocostal head: extends the humerus
As a whole, adducts and medially rotates the humerus. It also draws the scapula anteriorly and inferiorly.
Latissimus Dorsi spinous processes of thoracic T7-T12 + Lumbars
iliac & sacral crest and inferior 3 or 4 ribs
Intertubercular sulcus of Humerus adducts, extends and medially rotates the arm at the shoulder
draws arm inferiorly & posteriorly
Biceps Brachii short head: coracoid process of the scapula.

long head: supraglenoid tubercle
radial tuberosity  of radius & bicipital aponeurosis flexes elbow

supinates forearm
Triceps Brachii long head: infraglenoid tubercle of scapula
lateral head: posterior humerus medial head: posterior humerus
olecranon process of ulna extends forearm & arm
Flexor Carpi Radialis medial epicondyle of humerus (common flexor tendon) Bases of second and third metacarpal bones Flexion and abduction at wrist
Extensor Carpi Ulnaris Common extensor tendon (lateral epicondyle), posterior ulna 5th metacarpal extends and adducts the wrist
       
Sartorius Anterior Superior iliac spine medial surface of the tibial body Flexion of Knee

Flexion Abducts & lateral rotation of Hip
Quadriceps Femoris
(Rectus Femoris +
Vastus Lateralis +
Vastus Medialis +
Vastus Intermedius)
Anterior inferior iliac spine

Greater trochanter & line aspera of femur


linea aspera of femur

 anterior & lateral surface of femur body
Patella --> tibial tuberosity Knee extension; Hip flexion (rectus femoris only)
Gluteus Maximus Iliac crest sacrum coccyx

aponeurosis of sacrospinalis
Gluteal tuberosity of the femur, iliotibial tract extends thigh at hip joint

laterally rotates thigh
Biceps Femoris tuberosity of the ischium

linea aspera of femur
head of fibula & lateral condyle of tibia Flexes leg at knee joint

Extends thigh at hip joint
Semitendinosus tuberosity of the ischium proximal part of medial surface shaft of tibia flex knee,

extend hip joint
Semimembranosus Ischial Tuberosity medial condyle of tibia Flexs knee

extends thigh at hip
Gastrocnemius Lateral & medial condyles of femur & knee capsule Calcaneus via achilles tendon plantar flexes foot

flexes knee
Soleus Head of fibula

medial border of tibia
Calcaneus via achilles tendon plantarflexion
Tibialis Anterior Lateral condyle & body of tibia

interosseous membrane
1st metatarsal

1st Cuneiform
Dorsiflexion

Inversion of the foot
       
Sternocleidomastoid Sternum

Clavicle
Mastoid Process Flex Cspine

Extends head


Elevates Sternum (forced inhalation)


Lateral flex & rotates head
Masseter zygomatic arch

maxilla
Angle of Mandible

Ramus of Mandible
Elevates Mandible

Retracts Mandible
Orbicularis Oris Muscle fibers surrounding mouth opening Skin at corners of the mouth Protrudes lips

compress lips


Shapes lips for speech
Orbicularis Oculi Medial wall of Orbit Circular path around Orbit closes eyelids
       
External Abdominal Oblique Inferior 8 ribs Iliac crest

Linea Alba
Compress Abdomen

Flex Vertebral Column


Rotates Vertebral Column
Internal Abdominal Oblique Inguinal ligament

Iliac crest


Thoracolumbar fascia
Linea alba

Last 3~4 inferior ribs.
Compresses abdomen

Flex Vertebral Column


Rotates vertebral Column
Transversus Abdominis Iliac crest

inguinal ligament


lumbar fascia


cartilages of inferior six ribs
Xiphiod process

linea alba


pubis
compresses abdomen
Rectus Abdominis Pubic Crest

Pubic Symphysis
Costal cartilage of ribs 5-7

xiphoid process
Flexs vertebral column (esp Lumbar)

compresses abdomen
Diaphragm Circumference of body
Xiphoid process of the sternum, costal cartilages & adjacent portions of the inferior 6 ribs lumbar vertebrae and their intervertebral discs and the 12th rib
Central Tendon contraction of the diaphragm causes it to flatten and increases the vertical dimension of the thoracic resulting in inhalation; relaxation of the diaphragm causes it to move superiorly and decreases the vertical dimension of the thorassic cavity resulting in exhalation