Friday, November 19, 2010

Urinary System finished

Link help with lab practical Heart

Urinary System
            Purposed to maintain Homeostasis
                        By controlling composition of blood & blood volume
                                    Indirectly affects blood pH & blood pressure
            Purposed to excrete and eliminate waste
                        Waste from cellular activity
                        Metabolic wastes (excretes)
                        Protein metabolism produces toxic compounds
                                    Ammonia
                                    Urea
                                    Uric acid         

            Urinary organs
                        Essential system organ
                                    Kidneys
                        Involved in Storage, Transportation & Elimination
                                    Ureters
                                    Bladder
                                    Urethra

            Indirect excretory organs
                        Skin
                                    Sweating excretes small amounts of urea
                        Liver
                                    Excretes Bilirubin is excreted in bile and urine
                        Lungs
                                    Excrete carbon dioxide

Kidney
            Red-brown in color
            10~12cm long
            5~7 cm wide
            ~2.5 cm deep
            Found T12~L3
            Bean shaped
                        Convex on the lateral side
                        Concave on the medial side
                                    Hylus for nerves and vessels on concave side
            Retroperitoneal
                        Peritoneum helps hold the kidney in place
                        Renal Fascia is also in place to help hold the kidney in place
           
Kidney Features
            Renal sinus
                        Cavity within the kidney
                        Occupied by the renal pelvis, renal calyces, blood vessels, nerves and fat
            Cortex
                        Granular appearance
                                    Resembles fruit rind
                        Outer portion of the kidney
                        Between the renal capsule and the renal medulla
            Renal Pelvis
                        Upper expanded portion of ureter
                        Point of convergence of two or three major calyces
            Renal Medulla
                        Made of 8~18 renal pyramids
                        Innermost part of the kidney
            Minor Calyx
                        Duct between renal pyramids & major calyx
            Major Calyx
                        Duct between minor calyx & renal pelvis
           
            Parenchyma is the functional parts of an organ
                        Kidney parenchyma
                                    Cortex
                                    Medulla

            Juxta-: Prefix meaning near, nearby, or close.
                        Juxtamedullary zone
                                    Space close to the medulla of kidney
                        Cortical zone
                                    Space close to the cortex of kidney

Nephrons (renal tubules)
            Closely packed tubular units
            Functional Unit of the kidney
            Microscopic
            Begins in the cortex
            Follows an irregular path (convoluted)
            Proximal end has the look a tube pushed back on itself
                        glomerular capsule (Bowman's capsule)
                        Glomerulus a capillary tuft that performs the first step in filtering blood to form urine
                        Glomerular + Glomerulus = Renal Corpuscle
            Loop of henle
                        Portion of the nephron that leads from the proximal tubule
                        Dips down into the cortex or medulla depending on length
                        To the distal convoluted tubule
                        Main function is to create a concentration gradient in the medulla







Circulation of the Kidney
            Receives around 20% of the cardiac output
                        Receives blood from the abdominal aorta
                        Returns blood to the inferior vena cava

            Vasa recta
                        Long U-shaped vessels arising from the Efferent glomerular arterioles of juxtamedullary nephrons and supplying the renal medulla
           
                        The efferent arterioles of the juxtamedullary nephron drain into the vasa recta

            peritubular capillaries
                        The efferent arterioles don't directly drain into the interlobular vein, but  rather they go here first

            Macula Densa
                        Monitors filtrate in the ascending loop of henle

            Juxtaglomerial cells
                        cells in the kidney that synthesize, store, and secrete the enzyme rennin
                        Modified smooth muscles that adjust pressure
                                    Which adjusts volume
                                    Higher pressure yields more volume moved
Ureters
            Takes urine from renal pelvis in kidney to urinary bladder
            10~12 cm long
            Smooth muscle
                        Peristaltic contractions force urine down

Urinary Bladder
            Smooth muscle
            Hollow organ
            Empty = deflated = in true pelvic cavity
            3 openings
                        2 ureters (1 from each kidney)
                        1 urethra
Trigone
smooth triangular region of the internal urinary bladder formed by the two ureteral orifices and the internal urethral orifice
urogenital diaphragm
internal sphincter (involuntary)
external sphincter (@ diaphragm & voluntary)

Urethra
Female
            Short
male 3 regions
                        prostatic
                                    passes through prostate gland & ejaculatory duct enters
                        membraneous
                                    @ urogenital diaphragm
                                    Bulbourethral gland
                        cavernous
            passes through penis
micturition = urination

Tuesday, November 16, 2010

veins and arteries

clicking on them should enlarge them -- will do a bit of image editing to make it a bit easier to read


Friday, November 12, 2010

Respiratory system


Respiratory System
            2 main functions
                        make oxygen constantly available
                        Carry carbon dioxide away
                        By exchanging gasses between atmosphere and blood and cells
            Accessory function
                        Vocalization
            Protective devices
                        Coughing
                        Sneezing
            Contracts diaphragm
                        & external intercostals under normal breathing conditions
           
General path oxygen from nose to lungs
1.      nasal cavity
2.      pharynx
3.      larynx
4.      trachea
5.      bronchi
6.      lungs

            External Nares
                        The opening of the nose to the outside atmosphere
            Nasal Cavity
                        Large air filled space above and behind the nose in the middle of the face
                        Contains Olefactory Region, Inferior, Middle & superior Nasal Meatus
                                    Olefactory Region
                                                Mucous membrane line
                                                Ciliated Pseudo stratified columnar epithelium
                                                            For filtering the air
                                    Nasal meatus
                                                Add more area to allow for more filtering
            Internal Nares (Choana)
                        The opening between the nasal cavity and the nasopharynx
                        Has sebaceous glands just as skin does
            Nasopharynx
                        Always Open
            Oropharynx
            Laryngopharynx
            Larynx
                        Valved to prevent food from going down wrong tube
                        Glottis opens when swallowing
                        Epiglottis guards the entrance of the glottis, the opening between the vocal folds. It is normally pointed upward during breathing
                        Anterior wall
                                    Thyroid cartilage
                        Inferior wall
                                    Cricoid
                                    Fuses with trachea
                        Posterior wall
                                    Corniculate
                        Superior ventricular folds
                                    False vocal cords
                        Inferior ventricular folds
                                    True vocal cords
                                   
                                    Tension on these cords controls pitch
                                    Air volume moving past them controls volume
                                    Males are thicker & longer
           
            Trachea
                        Fibroelastic tube
                        11 cm long
                        2.5 cm diameter
                        C6 ~ T5
                        Divides into Right and Left Prime Bronchi
                        C shaped Cartilage supports
                        Trachealis muscle is a smooth muscle. It bridges the gap between free ends of C-shaped cartilages at the posterior border of the trachea,                                                 adjacent to the esophagus.
                        Lies Anterior to esophagus
                        Ciliated Pseudo stratified columnar epithelium
                                    For more filtering of air
                        Carina
                                    Most sensitive area
                                    Causes cough reflex to protect the lungs
                                    Lowest point of trachea

Respiratory Tree
                        2 branches
                        Right Prime Bronchi
                                    Shorter
                                    Broader
                                    3 subsidiary braches
                                                For the right 3 lobes
                        Left Prime Bronchi
                                    Longer
                                    2 subsidiary Branches
                                                for the left 2 lobes
                        smooth muscles replaces the C shaped cartilage of trachea

           
            Lungs
                        Extensive epithelial surface
                        Extensive capillary network
                        Elastic & spongy
                        Thin respiratory membrane (alveolar capillary Membrane)
                        Fills chest
                        Rest of diaphragm
                        Apex of either lung is ~ 2.5 cm above clavicle
                        Liver pushes right lung up slightly
                        Right Lung is shorter and broader & has a greater volume than the left side
                        Left lung is longer and has less volume avaible
                        Changes color over lifetime
                                    Changes depend on environment and lifestyle
                                    Red for fetus
                                    Pink for kids
                                    Grey ~ black for adults
                        Has a hylus for nerves and vessels to enter
                       
                        Visceral Pleura
                        Parietal Pluera
                        Plueral Caivty
                                    To keep lungs from rubbing on ribs

                        Both lungs have oblique fissures that divide superior and inferior lobes
                                    Right lobe has added transvers fissure for 3 lobe
                                    Inferior lobes are largest
                                    Lobes are highly elastic
                       
                        Arteries appear blue
                        Veins appear red
                        Lymph still green
                       
            Prime bronchii divide into bronchioles
                        (terminal) Bronchioles are barely a mm in diameter
                                    No cartilage
                        Alveolar duct
                        Alveolus


Type 1 alveolar
            Macrophages & monocytes
            To filter air and get rid of any bacteria that made it that far
Type 2 septal
            Produces phospholipid called surfactin
                        Surfactin keeps the walls of alveoli from sticking together
           
           

Friday, November 5, 2010

Digestive system Finished



Digestive System
            Musculo Membranous tube
                        Also called alimentary canal or GI tract
            Inside this tube can be considered outside the body
            Smooth muscle lined with mucous membrane
            Purposed for Digestion & absorbtion of nutrients
                       
Ingestion
Food entering at the mouth
Digestion
Chewing and enzymes breaking down molecules in a series of changes to break larger molecules into smaller ones to be absorbed
Movement
Peristalisis = radially symmetrical contraction and relaxation of muscles which propagates in a wave down the muscular tube
Absorption
Passing of nutrients through wall of digestive tube to reach blood & lymph
Egestion
Elimination of waste products of digestion

Broad Path of food
  1. Mouth
  2. Pharynx
  3. Esophagus
  4. Stomach
  5. Small intestine
  6. Large Intestine
  7. Anus

Accessory Organs à macroscopic or easily visible
            Teeth
            Salivary Glands
            Liver
            Gall Bladder
            Pancreas
            Tongue

Mouth
            Vestibule = entryway between teeth & gums (interiorly) and the lips & cheek(exteriorly)
            Gingiva = gums, a dense fibrous tissue attached to bone
            Superior & Inferior frenulum linguae
                        small fold of tissue that secures or restricts the motion of tongue

            Oral Cavity
                        Central to teeth and gums
                        Inferior to hard & soft palate
                        Superior to tongue and Mandible
                        Isthmus of fosces goes into oropharynx

            Teeth
                        Crown is above gum line
                                    Covered with enamel
                        Root extends into gum line
                                    Covered with cemetum
                        Neck is between root and crown
                        Teeth are made of dentinge à a bone like substance
                        Cavity within denting called pulp which contains pulp
                                    The pulp is LCT that supports vessels and nerves
                        Root Canal is space within the root of a tooth that allows for vessels and  nerves to enter and leave

Deciduous teeth à baby teeth
            Appear anywhere from 6 months ~ 2 years old on average
            When sufficiently calcified it pushes through the gums and the root supplies the  force
            Lost between 6 years ~ 13 years on average
           
            20 total teeth avg
            8 of which are incisors
            4 are canines
            8 are Molars

Permanent Dentition
            32 total teeth avg
            Larger than baby teeth
            8 are incisors
            4 canines
            8 Premolars
            8 Molar
            4 Wisdom Teeth

Tongue
            Involved in mastication, swallowing (degulation) and speech
            Located on the floor of the mouth
            Root connected to hyoid
            Tip lies behind lower incisors
            Lingual Frenulum attachement
            Rough surface due to lingual papillae
            Tastes buds at the base
            Has mucoid & serous glands which can be mixed

Salivary Glands
            3 pairs
            produce Saliva & the enzyme Amylase
            Parotid
                        Largest & anterior to external ear
                        Exocrine gland empties into vestibule
                        7 cm long
                        the secretion produced is mainly serous in nature
                        enters vestibule via Stensen's duct
            Submandibular
                        are a pair of glands located beneath the lower jaw
                        Empties in the floor of the mouth under the tongue
                        Enters via Whartons ducts
                        mixture of both serous fluid and mucus
            Sublingual
                        pair of glands located beneath the tongue
                        mainly mucous secretions
                        several tiny excretory ducts release

Pharynx
            Common to respiratory & digestive systems
            Can elevate & dilate to help move stuff down
            3 regions
                        nasopharynx à behind nose
                        oropharynx à behind mouth
                        laryngopharynx à behind larynx
           
            Starts in the skull at about C6
            Continues into the esophagus
            7 openings
                        1 mouth
                        2 nasal
                        2 tympanic
                        1 Esophagus
                        1 Larynx
           
            3 layers
                        Inner Mucosa
                                    Different types of epithelium depending on location
                        Fibrous Layer
                                    Fibrous tissues attached to skull
                        Muscular Layer
                                    Both skeletal and smooth muscle present

Esophagus
            23~25 cm long
            only has mucoid glands
            Rapid movement
            Connects laryngopharynx to stomach
            Narrowest
            Travels through 3 body regions
                        Neck thorax and abdomen
            4 layers
                        Tunica Mucosa 2 layers too
                                    Linning mucosa
                                                Cells depend on function
                                    Lamina propria
                                                LCT for blood & nerves
                        Tunica Submucosa
                                    LCT for glands
                        Tunica Muscularis
                                    Smooth muscle in a circular and longitudinal arrangement
                        Tunica Serousa (visceral peritoneum)
                                    Largest serous membrane in the body

Stomach
            2 openings controlled by sphincters
                        Cardiac orifice
                        Pyloric orifice
            Features
                        Lesser Curvature
                        Greater curvature
                        Cardia
                        Pyloris
                        Body
                        Fundus
                        Rugae – internal folds
                        Outer longitundinal layer
                        Circular layer
                        Oblique layer



Gastric glands
            Tubular
            Zygomenic Cells
                        Produce pepcinogen
                        Converts to pepcin with HCl
                        Pepcin begins digestion of proteins
            Oxyentic
                        Produces the HCl to activate the pepcinogen
            Mucous
                        More prevalent in the cardiac region of the stomach
                        Produces an Alkaline mucous to protect the body from high acid content
            Anterendocrine
                        Produces gastrin hormone
                        Gastrin controls production of HCl and Pepcin
                        Gastrin increase the churning of the stomach
Chyme
            a thick fluid mass of partially digested food and gastric secretions passed from the stomach to the small intestine

Small Intestine
            Longest at 7 meters long
            Begins at pyloric sphincter
            Ends at ileocecal valve
            Completes digestions & absorbs nutrients
            Plicae circularis
                        The circular folds slow the passage of the food along the intestines, and  afford an increased surface for absorption & doesn’t not flatten out
                        They are covered with small fingerlike projections called villi
                                    Each villus is covered with microvilli
                                                microvilli absorb fats and nutrients from the chyme.
            3 Regions
                        Duodenum
                                    First 25 cm
                                    Supported by Mesentery
                                    Has glands
                        Jejunum
                                    Next 2 meters
                                    No distinguishing feature to set it apart from rest of small intestine
                        Ileum
                                    Last 3.5 meters
                                    Joins large intestine
                                    Has Peyer’s Patches

            Intestinal glands
                        At the base of the villi
                        Produces intestinal juice
                        Duodenal glands (Brunner’s)
                                    Produces Alkaline mucous for protection at the duodenum
                        Bile & pancreatic juice enter at the duodenum at the hepaticpancreatic  ampula on raise area called duodenal papilla

Large Intestine
            1.5 meters long
            wider in diameter than small intestine
            extends illececal valve
            ends at anus
            absorbs water
            mucous secreting glands for lubrication
                       
            parts of the large intestine
                        Cecum
                                    blind receiving pouch that the small intestine empties into
                        Appendix
                                    Attached to cecum and is another blind pouch looks like a worm
                        Colon
                        Ascending Colon
                                    Up back & to the right
                                    Under the liver
                                    Turns left
                        Transverse colon
                                    Across the body
                                    Turns downwards
                        Descending colon
                                    Narrowest part
                        Sigmoid colon
                                    S shaped
                                    Comes back to the midline
                        Rectum
                                    Last 20 cm
                        Anal canal
                                    2~3 cm
                                    anal clumns
                        Anus
                                    Internal smooth muscular sphincter
                                    External skeletal muscle sphincter
                       
                        taenia coli
                                    three separate longitudinal ribbons of smooth muscle on the                                          
                                   outside of the ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid                                              
                                   colons. The teniae coli contracts length wise to produce the                                                  
                                    haustra, the bulges in the colon

Liver
            Largest gland in the body
            2 lobes
                        larger right side
                        separating ligament
                        smaller left lobe
            Right lobe has 2 smaller lobes
                        Quadrate
                        Transverse fissure between
                        Caudate

            Lobules have chords/strands of hepatic cells that radiate out from central vein
            Sinusoids replace typical capillaries
                        For filtering
           
            The liver receives a dual blood supply from the hepatic portal vein and  hepatic arteries
                        Hepatic portal vein carries venous blood drained from the spleen, GI tract, and its associated organs.
                        Hepatic arteries supply arterial blood to the liver
           

            Blood flows through the sinusoids and empties into the central vein of each lobule. The central veins combine into hepatic veins, which leave the liver and        empty into the inferior vena cava
                         
        Central vein à hepatic vein à IVC

            Kupffer Cells
                        specialized macrophages located in the liver lining the walls of the sinusoids that form part of the reticuloendothelial system (RES)
                       
            The cords of hepatic cells (hypatocytes) produce Bile
                        Route of bile
1.      canaliculi
2.      ducts
3.      Right or Left Hepatic Duct
4.      Common Hepatic Duct
                  Joins with the Gall bladders Cystic Duct
5.      Common Bile Duct
                  & Pancreatic Duct from pancreas
6.      Hepatopancreatic Duct
7.      Ampulla of Vater OR hepatopancreatic ampulla
8.      The Sphincter of Oddi 
                  controls the introduction of bile and pancreatic  secretions into the duodenum, as well as preventing                             the entry of duodenal contents into the Ampulla







Gall Bladder
            Mucous membrane lined
            Muscular sac
            Stores and concentrates bile
            Smooth muscle contractions move bile out
           
Pancreas
            12~17cm
            behind the stomach
            in fron the of the IVC, Aorta & left Kidney
            Retroperitoneal
            Soft oblong tubuloasinar gland
            Fits into greater curvature of the stomach
            Mixed gland
                        Partially exocrine & endocrine
                                    Exocrine
                                                Pancreatic juices
                                                Acini cell
                                    Endocrine
                                                Glucagon
                                                Insulin
                                                Few others
                        

 Respiratory system to follow