Friday, September 24, 2010

Week 6


Arm 1 bone
Forearm 2 bones
Phalanges 14 bones
Carpals 2 rows of 4 = 8
Metacarpal 5 bones

Humerus
            Articulates with glenoid cavity at the proximal end
            Articulates with both Radius and Ulna distally

Ulna
            Medially fits in olecranon fossa via olecrannon process
            Articulates with carpals distally

Radius
            lateral side of the elbow to the thumb side of the wrist
            articulates with the capitulum of the humerus, the radial notch and the head of the           ulna.

Carpals
            Proximal Row and laterally
           
Scaphoid
Lunate
Triquetrium
Pisiform
Trapezium
Trapazoid
Capitulum
Hamate

Metacarpals
            Proximal Row Laterally

I
II
III
IV
V

Phalanges
            Proximal Middle or Distal
P
P
P
P
P
D
M
M
M
M

D
D
D
D

Pelvic Girdle
            2 innomimal bones
            os coxae
            cotal bones

            Each hip bone has Fused 3 parts
                        Ilium – Top broad flat part
                        Ischium – inferior and posterior part
                        Pubis – Ventral anterior forming pubic arch

            Acetabulum
                        Articulates with femur
            Obturator foramen
                        Filled with connective tissue
            Pubic Symphysis
                        Firm union with hyaline & fibrocartilage

Thigh
            Femur
                        Largest and heaviest bone in the body
                        Articulates with acetabulum via the trochanter
                        Distal end expands for articulation with tibia
                        Has medial and lateral condyles

Tibia
            Medial
            Weight bearing
            Tibial tuberosity
            Distally articulates with talus

Fibula
            Lateral
            Proximal articulation with tibia
            Distal articulation with talus

Foot
            Calcaneous
            Talus
            I  - II – III  cuniforms
            Cuboid

            Metatarsal medial à lateral
                        Same name of phalanges
                        Some distal and middle phalanges have been known to fuse

Patella
            Sesamoid
            Entirely within a tendon at a point of major pressure
                        Patellar tendon

Arthrology
            3 categories based on movement
                        Synarthoris à no movement
                        Amphiarthrosis à some movement
                        Diarthrosis à freely moveable

            3 based on structure
                        Fibrous à little to no movement
                                    Syndesmosis - more fibrous tissue
                                    Suture - minimal fibrous tissue
                        Cartilage à litte to no movement
                                    Synchondrosis – temporary growth plate
                                    Symphysis
                        Synovial à freely moveable
                                     Joint capsule line with synovial membrane for synovial fluid                                           production for lubrication
                                    Synostosis – sutures that have completely calcified
                                    Arthrodia – Gliding joints
                                                Carpal bones
                                                Non axial

The Muscular system
Only Skeletal & voluntary muscles/organs
            Maintains posture – due to tonus
                        Tonus - continuous contraction of muscle
            Stabilizes articulations
            Red meat of the body
            Functions for locomotion
            Produces heat
            Interdependent system
            Contractible irritable extensible elastic
            Usually attached to bone
            Fatigues Fast
            Responds to Stimuli Faster
            Less Extensible
            Supports Nervous & Vascular system
                        Muscle movement can act as a pump (especially vascular system – lymph)
            Has both Sensory and Motor Neurons
            Lots of Mitochondria

Muscle Belly
            Fibers & tendon(s)
                        Tendon of Origin – attaches to less moveable structure
                        Tendon of Insertion – attaches to more movable structure
            May have 2 or more tendons of Origin
            May have Single origin and Several insertions
           
Aponuerosis à broad flat tendonous sheet, mainly serving to connect a muscle with the parts it moves

Deep Fascia
Each fiber has a sarcolemma
Endomycium surrounds sarcolemma
Fasiculus is a bundle of fibers
Perymycium surrounds each fascicle
Epimycium surrounds the all fasicles as a whole

NueroMuscular Junction
            Muscles and nerves actually don’t touch
            Synaptic bulb is the end of the nerve that begins the synaptic cleft
            Synaptic Cleft is just the space between the nerve and the muscle
            Motor End Plate is the sarcolemma of the muscle

In the Synaptic Cleft
            Several Mitochondria
            Several Synaptic vesicles
                        Containing ACh acetylcholine
                                    ACh  causes change in permeability that causes muscles to contract
                        Or contains AChE acetylcholinesterase
                                    AChE causes change in permeability that causes muscles to relax
                                                By removing ACh

Arrangement
            Nuclei lies under the sarcolemma
            Myofibril arrangement causes light and dark bands
                        Also directly responsible for muscle contraction
            Actin = thin band
                        Filaments anchored in Z line
            Myosin = Thick band
                        Filaments anchored near M line
Sarcomere
            Distance between 2 adjacent Z lines
           
I Band – Thin Actin ONLY
H Zone – Thick Myosin ONLY
A Band - location where Actin and Myosin overlap
M Line – Down the middle of thick myosin

Sliding Filament Theory
The sliding filament theory is the explanation for how muscles produce force (or, usually, shorten).  It explains that the thick and thin filaments within the sarcomere slide past one another, shortening the entire length of the sarcomere.  In order to slide past one another, the myosin heads will interact with the actin filaments and, using ATP, bend to pull past the actin

All or None Law
If the stimulus is any strength above threshold, the nerve or muscle fiber will give a complete response or otherwise no response at all

            Motor units
                        Controls anywhere from 3 – 150 fibers
                        # of motor units determines Total amount of force used

Roles of Muscle
            Prime Mover – Main muscle involved in desired action
            Antagonist – Counteracts action of prime mover
            Synergist – Steadies movement or removes unwanted movement
            Fixator – Maintains same position
            Coordination – Cooperation Between muscles
                        Controlled via cerebellum

A muscle that is closer to a joint has greater range of motion but losses leverage
A muscle that is away from a joint has less range yet more leverage

Muscle Arrangement
            Longitudinal (Parallel) all fibers arranged parallel fashion
                        Can shorten by 1/3 or ½ length of muscle belly
                        Weak
            Unapenate – Muscle fibers attach laterally along 1 side
            Bipenate – muscle fibers attach laterally 2 sides – Powerfull
            Radiate --Combined arrangement of flat and fusiform
muscles, orginate on brad aponeurosis and
converge onto a tendon
            Orbicularis -- a muscle encircling an orifice

Week 6


Ginglymus Hinge Joint - monoaxial joints -- flexion and extension -- ex/ elbow
Trochoid Pivot joint - monoaxial along the longtitudinal axis -- supination and pronation -- ex radius and ulna
Condyloid Ellipsoid - biaxial -- Flexion extension abduction adduction -- ex wrist 
Solaris Saddle - biaxial -- Flexion extension abduction adduction circumduction -- thumb only
Spheroid Ball & Socket - triaxial -- Flexion extension abduction adduction Circumduction -- ex shoulder or hip
Flexion Decreases the angle between bones -- ex bending at the knee
dorsalflexion flexion of the foot
Extension Increases the angle between the bones -- ex straightening you leg
Hyperextension Extension beyond normal flexion -- unhealthy
plantarflexion extension of the foot
ABduction movement away from the central axis of movement
ADduction movement toward to central axis
Rotation movement around an axis -- medial = toward midline -- lateral = away from midline
Supination forearm movement that places the forearm in anatomical position
Pronation forearm movement that puts forearm in the more common position -- aka typing position
Eversion FOOT ONLY -- movement of sole of foot outward
Inversion FOOT ONLY -- movement of sole of foot inward or medial
Protraction forward movement
Retraction backward movement
Elevation Upward movement
Depression Downward movement
Circumduction movement that includes flexion + Extension + ADduction + ABduction + Rotation

Friday, September 17, 2010

Week 5

Skeletal System Bones, Cartilage & its Articulations -- Provides shape support protection, provides a system of levers -- Red bone marrow produces red blood cells -- Acts as a resivior for calcium and Potassium -- Constantly changing and remodeling
Osteology Scientific study of bones
Arthrology Scientific study of articulations
Endoskeleton Skeleton is held entirely within soft tissues -- Living -- grows self -repairing and regenerates
Exoskeleton Skeleton this is most external -- an outside covering
Compact Bone central canal for blood capillaries and the concentric osseous lamellae in compact bone -- osteons lacunae osteocytes
Spongy Bone Delicate lattice work of trabeculae that contains marrow
Long Bone longer than they are wide, and grow primarily by elongation of the diaphysis, with an epiphysis at the ends of the growing bone. The ends of epiphyses are covered with a hyaline cartilage ("articular cartilage")
Epiphysis mostly spongy bone with a compact bone covering -- at the ends of long bones
Diaphysis Shaft of long bone -- contains medullary cavity which contains red bone marrow for red blood cell production -- red marrow slowly turns to yellow marrow with age
Metaphysis Is between Epiphysis and diaphysis -- wider portion of a long bone adjacent to the epiphyseal plate It is this part of the bone that grows during childhood; as it grows, it ossifies near the diaphysis and the epiphyses. At roughly 18 to 25 years of age, the metaphysis stops growing altogether and completely ossifies into solid bone
Epiphyseal plate Growth plate that osifies at puberty
Articular cartilage Hyaline cartilage to join adjacent bones
------------- Bone Markings ----------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Suture Line of union between bones -- notably in cranial bones an its 4 main sutures
Fissure narrow cleft like opening/passageway for nerves and blood vessels
Foramen Hole or opening for blood vessels nerves and muscles
Meatus Canal or Tube Shaped opening
Sulcus flat broad -- groove or furrow to accommodate a soft structure
Fossa Deppresion in bone
Fobia Tiny depression in bone
Sinus Air filled cavity withing a cavity -- Paranasals
Condyle Large rounded articular prominence
Head rounded articular region supported by the neck of the bone
Facet Smooth flat articulating surface
Tubercle small rounded knoblike process
Tuberosity Rough large rounded process
Trochanter Large blunt projection -- femur only
Crest Prominent boder or ridge
Line less prominent border or ridge
Spine Sharp Slender process
Epicondyle projection above a condyle for attachment
------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Remodleling Growth and shrinkage of bone -- increases circumference -- old bone constantly being removed for new bone to replace it
Osteoblast form/create new bone tissue -- found in osteogenic layer or periosteum
Osteoclast Breaks down bone
Bone health Vitamin A, C, D, Calcium Potassium Hormones calcitonen (thyroid to increase & parathyroid to decrease) Wieght bearing exercise
calcitonen decreases Calcium in blood and increases Osteoblasts --> Via Thryroid  --- Parathyroid increases Calcium in blood and decreases Osteoblasts
Rickets Deffeciency of Vitamin D in children -- can be due to malnutrition
Osteomalacia Bone Softening in adults demineralized -- can be due to lack of sunligh --> lack of vitamin D
Osteomylitis Inflamation of bone -- infection in bone
Osteoporosis Pourous weakened bones usually occurs with age due to lack of protein production of bone decreases with age
Long Bone longer than they are wide, and grow primarily by elongation of the diaphysis, with an epiphysis at the ends of the growing bone. The ends of epiphyses are covered with a hyaline cartilage ("articular cartilage")
Short Bone intended for strength and compactness combined with limited movement -- as being approximately as wide as they are tall
Flate Bone found where the principal requirement is either extensive protection or the provision of broad surfaces for muscular attachment, the bones are expanded into broad, flat plates
Irregular Bone Bones that do not fall into any other category due to irregular shape
Axial Skeleton 80 total -- 29 Skull -- 26 Vertebrae -- 24 Ribs -- 1 Sternum
Appendicular Skeleton 126 total -- 4 Pectoral Girdle -- 60 Upper Limbs -- 2 Pelvic Girdle -- 60 Lower limbs
Skull 8 total bones -- single and paired bones
Frontal Single Bone -- Starts as 2 bones and fuses early in life -- Forehead -- Anterior superior of orbital socket -- contains a sinus
Occipital Single Bone -- Posterior and Inferior where spinal cord enters the brain
Ethmoid Single Bone -- Complex light delicate -- contains a sinus -- part of the orbital bone -- perpindicular plate forms top of nose -- Superior  and middle nasal conchi
Sphenoid Single Bone -- Contains a sinus -- bat shaped -- articulates with all other cranial bones -- sella turcia holds pituitary gland
Parietal Paired bones -- large flat -- superior side walls and roof of skull
Temporal Paired Bones -- Complex inferior side walls -- external auditory meatus -- mastoid process and zygomatic process for muscle attachments
Coronal Suture Frontal & Parietal line of attachment
Sagittal Suture 2 parietal line of attachment
Lambdoid Suture Occipital & Parietal line of attachment
Squamous Suture Temporal & Parietal line of attachment
Facial Bones 14 paired and single bones
Mandible Single Bone --Lower jaw -- largest and strongest in the face -- aveolis contain teeth -- horizontal part of mandible = body -- perpendicular = ramus -- place where ramus and body meet = Angle
Vomer Single Bone -- Blade shaped bone -- posterior inferior of nose
Maxilla Paired Bones -- Upper jaw and floor of the eye orbit -- nasal wall -- contains a sinus -- does not articulate with a mandible
Zygomatic Paired Bones -- Prominence of Cheek -- part of eye orbit -- temporal process + zygomatic process = zygomatic arch
Nasal Paired Bones -- articulate on bridge of nose
Lacrimal Paired Bones -- Lacrimal duct lightest most delicate of face
Palatine Paired Bones -- Hard Pallatte -- L shapped -- upward part helps with nasal bone -- horizontal plate forms posterior roof of the mouth
Inferior Nasal Conchi Paired Bones -- Scroll shaped that project into nasal passageway lateral cartilage
Ear Canal Bones Paired Bones -- Malleus Incus & Stapes
Hyoid Horeshoe shaped -- connected to the tounge -- no articulation with any other bone held in by cartilage and muscle
Vertebrae 7 Cervical - 12 Thorassic -- 5 Lumbar -- 5 Sacrum -- 4 coccyx
Vertbrae Body Load Bearing structure of the vertbrae
Vertbral Arch Forms vertebral Foramen for spinal cord
Spinous Process Muscle attachement for vertebrae
Transverse Process articulates with rib tubercle
Facets Smooth flat articulating surface
Demifacets Superior and Inferior on vertebrae that articulate with rib head
Infererior articular facet articulates with vertebrae below
Superior articular facet articulates with vertebrae above
Atlas C1 Superior facets with occipital condyle -- easily fractured -- allows vertical movement - yes movement
Axis C2 Dens Process that allows for horizontal movement - no movement
Sacrum vertebrae support base
Coccyx Tailbone
Thorax 12 pair of ribs -- first 7 are true ribs which are attached to the sternum via costal cartilage -- last 5 ribs are false ribs
True Rib first 7 pair of ribs vertebral sternal
False Rib last 5 pair of ribs -- First 3 pair indirectly attach to the sternum last 2 pair are freely floating with no attachment
Rib Wedge shaped head supported by a neck -- body/shaft is the main bulk of the rib -- costal arch is the arch that heads toward the vertebrae
Sternum  Flat medial bone with 3 regions -- Manubrium body and zyphoid
Manubrium most superior -- suprasternal notch -- clavicular notch -- 1st and 2nd ribs -- sternal angle articulates with rest of sternum
body Middle of sternum -- rib attachments
Zyphoid Occifies ~ 40 and becomes bone -- attachment for abdominal muscles
Appendicular Skeleton
Pectoral Girdle Clavicle + Scapula
Scapula Triangle Shaped -- Spinous process & supraspinous an subspinous fossa on posterior surface -- Subscapular on anterior surface -- Acromion slightly flaring process at lateral end of spine -- glenoid cavity fossa forming socket for head of humerus -- coracoid process beak like projection on anterior surface for muscle attachement
Clavicle long slender S shaped -- Medial end = Sternal end  -- lateral end = Acromial end -- only bony connection to axial skeleton so it needs a strong fibrocartilage pad that allows for greater range of movement

Bone Markings Week 5


Suture Line of union between bones -- notably in cranial bones an its 4 main sutures
Fissure narrow cleft like opening/passageway for nerves and blood vessels
Foramen Hole or opening for blood vessels nerves and muscles
Meatus Canal or Tube Shaped opening
Sulcus flat broad -- groove or furrow to accommodate a soft structure
Fossa Deppresion in bone
Fobia Tiny depression in bone
Sinus Air filled cavity withing a cavity -- Paranasals
Condyle Large rounded articular prominence
Head rounded articular region supported by the neck of the bone
Facet Smooth flat articulating surface
Tubercle small rounded knoblike process
Tuberosity Rough large rounded process
Trochanter Large blunt projection -- femur only
Crest Prominent boder or ridge
Line less prominent border or ridge
Spine Sharp Slender process
Epicondyle projection above a condyle for attachment

Wednesday, September 8, 2010

Week 4

labor day --> Short week

Reviewed Material

Test this friday (100 Questions over notes below)

Friday, September 3, 2010

Week 3


Endocrine Secretions go to the intracellular fluid (bloodstream)
Exocrine Has a duct that carries the secretion to where it is to be used
Simple Gland Duct that does not branch
Compound Gland Branching Duct
Tubular Gland Tube shaped duct
Acinar Gland Duct that opens up into a sphere shape
Tubulocinar Has both tubular and acinar characteristics
Holocrine Gland Death of the cell releases the secretion -- Type of exocrine gland -- example: sebatious gland responsible to oil production for skin
Merocrine Releases secretion by exocytosis -- Type of exocrine gland -- example: sailvary, Pancreatic and certain sweat glands
Apocrine Half the cell is loaded with the secretion and then pinched off (decapitaion secretion) examples: sweat and mamory glands -- Axillary(armpit) Pubic area -- Starts at puberty and secretions are viscous, often called smelly sweat
Nervous Tissue Mostly Cellular - no true products -- Irritable (responds to stimuli by conducting nerve impulse)
Perikaryon/Nueron Cell body of a nerve
Dendrites Branch like structure that carries information toward the nueron
Axon Usually a single structure that carries information away from the nueron
Sensory Nerve Carries information too the central nervous system for processing (Afferent)
Motor Nerve Carries information from the central nervous system for action (Efferent)
Nueroglia Protect nourish support nuerons (Glia)
Muscle Tissue Primarily Cellular -- Low Fluid -- No Products -- called fibers which are elongated cells -- Irritable, Contracts, and Extands (Elastic) -- 3 types Smooth Striated Cardiac
Sarcoplasm Cytosol of muscles
Sarcolemma Muscle Membrane
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Special Type of endoplasmic reticulum found on smooth and striated muscle -- functions to store and release calcium ions
Skeletal muscle Long fibers with dark and light bands -- Multi-nucliated -- attached to bone for support and movement -- Voluntary
Myosin a protein -- Thick bands on skeletal muscle 
Actin a protein -- Thin bands on skeletal muscle
Smooth Muscle non striated -- one nucleus -- spindle shaped -- Involuntary -- Walls of hallow organs and arrangement determines function
Cardiac Muscle Heart only -- Straited + Intercolated discs -- 1 nucleus -- Involuntary -- branched cells
Connective Tissue Most abundant type of tissue -- protects, packs, fills and supports -- binding structures -- abundance of extracellular products (fibers and other substances) -- More extracellular fluid (matrix) can be fluid or semi mucoid -- resistand to physical forces due to collagenous fibers which are found in bundles for strength and support
Elastic (Yellow) Fibers made of Elastin, more fragile yet more elastic
Reticular Fibers Collagen & Glycoprotein most fragile used for holding cells & cell membranes together to make functional unit
CT shorthand for Connective Tissue
Loose CT Between structures for packing and filling -- hyluronic acid = matrix -- Found in several parts body ranging from the skin to organs
Loose Areolar CT CT where fibers are loosely arranged in a net or meshwork fashion -- consists of collagenous, elastic fibers, ground substance and CT cells
Loose Adipose CT Mostly fat that causes the nuclues to get shoved to the outer wall -- in kidneys heart surface bone marrow
telasubcutanea continuous layer of loose adipose CT beneath the skin
Loose Reticular CT network of reticular fibers made of type 3 collagen -- called reticular due it being the dominant fiber present
Dense CT (Fibrous) Closely packed fibers -- less matrix -- provides a strong connection between different tissues 2 forms; Regular & Irregular
Dense Irregular CT Irregular appearance due to the fact it has do deal with forces coming from all angles so there is an irregular appearance to the fiber arrangement -- found in lower layers of the skin and in the protective white layer of the eyeball
Dense Regular CT Parrallel fibers running the length needed, arrangement of fibers due to only dealing with unilateral forces -- fibers are collagenous; providing the firmest union -- cylindrical or flattened bands wrapped with areolar ct -- examples: tendons ligaments
Fascia The flat layers of fibrous tissue that separate different layers of tissue
tendon connects muscle to bone providing stability and assisting movement
tendon sheath separates the tendon from direct contact from a bone and provides lubrication
Bursa Fluid filled sac that provides lubrication for tendon sheath
Ligament short tuff flat bands that connect bone to bone
elastic ligaments in between vertebra
Elastic CT composed of elastic fibers produced by fibroblasts and stretch 1.5x normal length and can snap back to original length when relaxed -- Larynx & heart arteries
Vascular CT Blood vessels -- More intracellular matrix; Blood lymph fibrinogen
Cartilage Avascular and No nerves -- tough complex gelatinous -- Diffusion occurs slowly -- found inbetween articulating bones, ear nose vertebrae
Chondrocytes Cells that create cartilage with lies within Lacunae which is surrounded by its matrix
lacunae the gap that chondrocytes (in this case) reside in
perichondrium Layer of Dense Irregular CT that surrounds cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage that appears smooths and glossy -- is a dense mass of delicate fibers
Elastic (yellow) Cartilage that has elastic fiber networks in addition to collagen fibers matrix
Fibrocartilage Cartilage with a fibrous matrix -- Fibers are quie numerous
Bone Bone created by osteocyte -- hard rigid mineralized -- ~35% collagen fiber -- Impervious to diffusion
Osteocyte rests in lacuna of bone matrix -- and osteoblast that is embedded in bony tissue which is relatively inactive
Osteblast responsible for bone formation
Canaliculi Small passageway -- in the case of bone it allows matrix to move around in the otherwise impervious structure
Lamellae Ring in Bone -- resembling a plate
osteon central canal for blood capillaries and the concentric osseous lamellae in compact bone
Periosteum outer covering of bone -- fibrous outer layer -- Osteogenic inner layer
Integumentary System Skin -- largest organ (3k in^2) -- purpose: protection, temperature maintenance, chemical storage (mallanin, vitaminD) Excretion, and synthesis of Vitamin D -- Senses pressure pain and temperature changes -- touch reception
Epidermis thin outer layer of epithelial tissue -- avascular -- 4-5 layers thick depending on location
Stratum Corneum 20-30 layers of thin flat dead cells filled with keratin
Stratum Lucidum Several Rows of clear flat cell -- have Illeidum, the precursor to keratin -- Only in Palm of hand and sole of foot
Stratum Granulosum produces keratohyalin that leads to illeidum -- has a granular appearance
Stratum Spinosum 8-10 layers of polyhedrum cells appears spinous, presence of lipids here create a hydrophobic layer that prevents dehydration keratinization begins here
Stratum Basale Deepest Layer -- Rests on basement membrane -- appear cuboidal or columnar
Carotene orange pigment that appears more dominant in people of asain descent -- more easily visible in carrots which it is named after
Melanin pigment that everyone has that causes skin to darken, more noticable in those of african descent -- in the stratum basale
Melanocytes Produce melanin
Albinism inherited inability to produce melanin
Freckles inherited patches of melanin
Vitiligo inherited patches of skin that lack pigment (can make dark skin have white patches)
Dermis has papillary and reticular regions -- has collagenous and ellastic fibers -- capillaries and blood vessels present
Meissner's Corpuscle Touch sensory Nerve ending 
Papillary Dermis uppermost layer of the dermis -- composed of fine and loosely arranged collagen fibers -- projects up under the epidermis via papila (fingerlike projections)
Reticular Dermis Lower layer of the Dermis (under Papillary) composed of thick densely packed collagen fibers -- primary location of dermal elastic fibers -- hair folicles are pushed into this layer -- sebaceous glands, arrector pili (goosebump muscle) and sudoriferour glands are all present at this level
Subcutaneous Tissue (aka Hypoderm, hypodermis, superficial fascia) Lowest layer of integumentary system -- fibroblasts and adipose cells present -- 
Lamella Corpuscle Nerve ending wrapped in lamellae that senses Deep Pressure
Eccrine Exocrine Gland -- simple tubule sweat gland -- secretions begin in the SubQ layer and a duct takes it to the top layer of the skin
Ceruminous Gland located in the SubQ of the external auditory canal which produces cerumen (EarWax) to lubricate clean and trap foreign particles