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more to come
Tuesday, November 23, 2010
Friday, November 19, 2010
Urinary System finished
Link help with lab practical Heart
Kidney
Urinary System
Purposed to maintain Homeostasis
By controlling composition of blood & blood volume
Indirectly affects blood pH & blood pressure
Purposed to excrete and eliminate waste
Waste from cellular activity
Metabolic wastes (excretes)
Protein metabolism produces toxic compounds
Ammonia
Urea
Uric acid
Urinary organs
Essential system organ
Kidneys
Involved in Storage, Transportation & Elimination
Ureters
Bladder
Urethra
Indirect excretory organs
Skin
Sweating excretes small amounts of urea
Liver
Excretes Bilirubin is excreted in bile and urine
Lungs
Excrete carbon dioxide
Red-brown in color
10~12cm long
5~7 cm wide
~2.5 cm deep
Found T12~L3
Bean shaped
Convex on the lateral side
Concave on the medial side
Hylus for nerves and vessels on concave side
Retroperitoneal
Peritoneum helps hold the kidney in place
Renal Fascia is also in place to help hold the kidney in place
Kidney Features
Renal sinus
Cavity within the kidney
Occupied by the renal pelvis, renal calyces, blood vessels, nerves and fat
Cortex
Granular appearance
Resembles fruit rind
Outer portion of the kidney
Between the renal capsule and the renal medulla
Renal Pelvis
Upper expanded portion of ureter
Point of convergence of two or three major calyces
Renal Medulla
Made of 8~18 renal pyramids
Innermost part of the kidney
Minor Calyx
Duct between renal pyramids & major calyx
Major Calyx
Duct between minor calyx & renal pelvis
Parenchyma is the functional parts of an organ
Kidney parenchyma
Cortex
Medulla
Juxta-: Prefix meaning near, nearby, or close.
Juxtamedullary zone
Space close to the medulla of kidney
Cortical zone
Space close to the cortex of kidney
Nephrons (renal tubules)
Closely packed tubular units
Functional Unit of the kidney
Microscopic
Begins in the cortex
Follows an irregular path (convoluted)
Proximal end has the look a tube pushed back on itself
glomerular capsule (Bowman's capsule)
Glomerulus a capillary tuft that performs the first step in filtering blood to form urine
Glomerular + Glomerulus = Renal Corpuscle
Loop of henle
Portion of the nephron that leads from the proximal tubule
Dips down into the cortex or medulla depending on length
To the distal convoluted tubule
Main function is to create a concentration gradient in the medulla
Circulation of the Kidney
Receives around 20% of the cardiac output
Receives blood from the abdominal aorta
Returns blood to the inferior vena cava
Vasa recta
Long U-shaped vessels arising from the Efferent glomerular arterioles of juxtamedullary nephrons and supplying the renal medulla
The efferent arterioles of the juxtamedullary nephron drain into the vasa recta
peritubular capillaries
The efferent arterioles don't directly drain into the interlobular vein, but rather they go here first
Macula Densa
Monitors filtrate in the ascending loop of henle
Juxtaglomerial cells
cells in the kidney that synthesize, store, and secrete the enzyme rennin
Modified smooth muscles that adjust pressure
Which adjusts volume
Higher pressure yields more volume moved
Ureters
Takes urine from renal pelvis in kidney to urinary bladder
10~12 cm long
Smooth muscle
Peristaltic contractions force urine down
Urinary Bladder
Smooth muscle
Hollow organ
Empty = deflated = in true pelvic cavity
3 openings
2 ureters (1 from each kidney)
1 urethra
Trigone
smooth triangular region of the internal urinary bladder formed by the two ureteral orifices and the internal urethral orifice
urogenital diaphragm
internal sphincter (involuntary)
external sphincter (@ diaphragm & voluntary)
Urethra
Female
Short
male 3 regions
prostatic
passes through prostate gland & ejaculatory duct enters
membraneous
@ urogenital diaphragm
Bulbourethral gland
cavernous
passes through penis
micturition = urination
Tuesday, November 16, 2010
veins and arteries
clicking on them should enlarge them -- will do a bit of image editing to make it a bit easier to read
Friday, November 12, 2010
Respiratory system
Respiratory System
2 main functions
make oxygen constantly available
Carry carbon dioxide away
By exchanging gasses between atmosphere and blood and cells
Accessory function
Vocalization
Protective devices
Coughing
Sneezing
Contracts diaphragm
& external intercostals under normal breathing conditions
General path oxygen from nose to lungs
1. nasal cavity
2. pharynx
3. larynx
4. trachea
5. bronchi
6. lungs
External Nares
The opening of the nose to the outside atmosphere
Nasal Cavity
Large air filled space above and behind the nose in the middle of the face
Contains Olefactory Region, Inferior, Middle & superior Nasal Meatus
Olefactory Region
Mucous membrane line
Ciliated Pseudo stratified columnar epithelium
For filtering the air
Nasal meatus
Add more area to allow for more filtering
Internal Nares (Choana)
The opening between the nasal cavity and the nasopharynx
Has sebaceous glands just as skin does
Nasopharynx
Always Open
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Larynx
Valved to prevent food from going down wrong tube
Glottis opens when swallowing
Epiglottis guards the entrance of the glottis, the opening between the vocal folds. It is normally pointed upward during breathing
Anterior wall
Thyroid cartilage
Inferior wall
Cricoid
Fuses with trachea
Posterior wall
Corniculate
Superior ventricular folds
False vocal cords
Inferior ventricular folds
True vocal cords
Tension on these cords controls pitch
Air volume moving past them controls volume
Males are thicker & longer
Trachea
Fibroelastic tube
11 cm long
2.5 cm diameter
C6 ~ T5
Divides into Right and Left Prime Bronchi
C shaped Cartilage supports
Trachealis muscle is a smooth muscle. It bridges the gap between free ends of C-shaped cartilages at the posterior border of the trachea, adjacent to the esophagus.
Lies Anterior to esophagus
Ciliated Pseudo stratified columnar epithelium
For more filtering of air
Carina
Most sensitive area
Causes cough reflex to protect the lungs
Lowest point of trachea
Respiratory Tree
2 branches
Right Prime Bronchi
Shorter
Broader
3 subsidiary braches
For the right 3 lobes
Left Prime Bronchi
Longer
2 subsidiary Branches
for the left 2 lobes
smooth muscles replaces the C shaped cartilage of trachea
Lungs
Extensive epithelial surface
Extensive capillary network
Elastic & spongy
Thin respiratory membrane (alveolar capillary Membrane)
Fills chest
Rest of diaphragm
Apex of either lung is ~ 2.5 cm above clavicle
Liver pushes right lung up slightly
Right Lung is shorter and broader & has a greater volume than the left side
Left lung is longer and has less volume avaible
Changes color over lifetime
Changes depend on environment and lifestyle
Red for fetus
Pink for kids
Grey ~ black for adults
Has a hylus for nerves and vessels to enter
Visceral Pleura
Parietal Pluera
Plueral Caivty
To keep lungs from rubbing on ribs
Both lungs have oblique fissures that divide superior and inferior lobes
Right lobe has added transvers fissure for 3 lobe
Inferior lobes are largest
Lobes are highly elastic
Arteries appear blue
Veins appear red
Lymph still green
Prime bronchii divide into bronchioles
(terminal) Bronchioles are barely a mm in diameter
No cartilage
Alveolar duct
Alveolus
Type 1 alveolar
Macrophages & monocytes
To filter air and get rid of any bacteria that made it that far
Type 2 septal
Produces phospholipid called surfactin
Surfactin keeps the walls of alveoli from sticking together
Friday, November 5, 2010
Digestive system Finished
Digestive System
Musculo Membranous tube
Also called alimentary canal or GI tract
Inside this tube can be considered outside the body
Smooth muscle lined with mucous membrane
Purposed for Digestion & absorbtion of nutrients
Ingestion | Food entering at the mouth |
Digestion | Chewing and enzymes breaking down molecules in a series of changes to break larger molecules into smaller ones to be absorbed |
Movement | Peristalisis = radially symmetrical contraction and relaxation of muscles which propagates in a wave down the muscular tube |
Absorption | Passing of nutrients through wall of digestive tube to reach blood & lymph |
Egestion | Elimination of waste products of digestion |
Broad Path of food
- Mouth
- Pharynx
- Esophagus
- Stomach
- Small intestine
- Large Intestine
- Anus
Accessory Organs à macroscopic or easily visible
Teeth
Salivary Glands
Liver
Gall Bladder
Pancreas
Tongue
Mouth
Vestibule = entryway between teeth & gums (interiorly) and the lips & cheek(exteriorly)
Gingiva = gums, a dense fibrous tissue attached to bone
Superior & Inferior frenulum linguae
small fold of tissue that secures or restricts the motion of tongue
Oral Cavity
Central to teeth and gums
Inferior to hard & soft palate
Superior to tongue and Mandible
Isthmus of fosces goes into oropharynx
Teeth
Crown is above gum line
Covered with enamel
Root extends into gum line
Covered with cemetum
Neck is between root and crown
Teeth are made of dentinge à a bone like substance
Cavity within denting called pulp which contains pulp
The pulp is LCT that supports vessels and nerves
Root Canal is space within the root of a tooth that allows for vessels and nerves to enter and leave
Deciduous teeth à baby teeth
Appear anywhere from 6 months ~ 2 years old on average
When sufficiently calcified it pushes through the gums and the root supplies the force
Lost between 6 years ~ 13 years on average
20 total teeth avg
8 of which are incisors
4 are canines
8 are Molars
Permanent Dentition
32 total teeth avg
Larger than baby teeth
8 are incisors
4 canines
8 Premolars
8 Molar
4 Wisdom Teeth
Tongue
Involved in mastication, swallowing (degulation) and speech
Located on the floor of the mouth
Root connected to hyoid
Tip lies behind lower incisors
Lingual Frenulum attachement
Rough surface due to lingual papillae
Tastes buds at the base
Has mucoid & serous glands which can be mixed
Salivary Glands
3 pairs
produce Saliva & the enzyme Amylase
Parotid
Largest & anterior to external ear
Exocrine gland empties into vestibule
7 cm long
the secretion produced is mainly serous in nature
enters vestibule via Stensen's duct
Submandibular
are a pair of glands located beneath the lower jaw
Empties in the floor of the mouth under the tongue
Enters via Whartons ducts
mixture of both serous fluid and mucus
Sublingual
pair of glands located beneath the tongue
mainly mucous secretions
several tiny excretory ducts release
Pharynx
Common to respiratory & digestive systems
Can elevate & dilate to help move stuff down
3 regions
nasopharynx à behind nose
oropharynx à behind mouth
laryngopharynx à behind larynx
Starts in the skull at about C6
Continues into the esophagus
7 openings
1 mouth
2 nasal
2 tympanic
1 Esophagus
1 Larynx
3 layers
Inner Mucosa
Different types of epithelium depending on location
Fibrous Layer
Fibrous tissues attached to skull
Muscular Layer
Both skeletal and smooth muscle present
Esophagus
23~25 cm long
only has mucoid glands
Rapid movement
Connects laryngopharynx to stomach
Narrowest
Travels through 3 body regions
Neck thorax and abdomen
4 layers
Tunica Mucosa 2 layers too
Linning mucosa
Cells depend on function
Lamina propria
LCT for blood & nerves
Tunica Submucosa
LCT for glands
Tunica Muscularis
Smooth muscle in a circular and longitudinal arrangement
Tunica Serousa (visceral peritoneum)
Largest serous membrane in the body
Stomach 2 openings controlled by sphincters
Cardiac orifice
Pyloric orifice
Features
Lesser Curvature
Greater curvature
Cardia
Pyloris
Body
Fundus
Rugae – internal folds
Outer longitundinal layer
Circular layer
Oblique layer
Gastric glands
Tubular
Zygomenic Cells
Produce pepcinogen
Converts to pepcin with HCl
Pepcin begins digestion of proteins
Oxyentic
Produces the HCl to activate the pepcinogen
Mucous
More prevalent in the cardiac region of the stomach
Produces an Alkaline mucous to protect the body from high acid content
Anterendocrine
Produces gastrin hormone
Gastrin controls production of HCl and Pepcin
Gastrin increase the churning of the stomach
Chyme
a thick fluid mass of partially digested food and gastric secretions passed from the stomach to the small intestine
Small Intestine
Longest at 7 meters long
Begins at pyloric sphincter
Ends at ileocecal valve
Completes digestions & absorbs nutrients
Plicae circularis
The circular folds slow the passage of the food along the intestines, and afford an increased surface for absorption & doesn’t not flatten out
They are covered with small fingerlike projections called villi
Each villus is covered with microvilli
microvilli absorb fats and nutrients from the chyme.
3 Regions
Duodenum
First 25 cm
Supported by Mesentery
Has glands
Jejunum
Next 2 meters
No distinguishing feature to set it apart from rest of small intestine
Ileum
Last 3.5 meters
Joins large intestine
Has Peyer’s Patches
Intestinal glands
At the base of the villi
Produces intestinal juice
Duodenal glands (Brunner’s)
Produces Alkaline mucous for protection at the duodenum
Bile & pancreatic juice enter at the duodenum at the hepaticpancreatic ampula on raise area called duodenal papilla
Large Intestine
1.5 meters long
wider in diameter than small intestine
extends illececal valve
ends at anus
absorbs water
mucous secreting glands for lubrication
parts of the large intestine
Cecum
blind receiving pouch that the small intestine empties into
Appendix
Attached to cecum and is another blind pouch looks like a worm
Colon
Ascending Colon
Up back & to the right
Under the liver
Turns left
Transverse colon
Across the body
Turns downwards
Descending colon
Narrowest part
Sigmoid colon
S shaped
Comes back to the midline
Rectum
Last 20 cm
Anal canal
2~3 cm
anal clumns
Anus
Internal smooth muscular sphincter
External skeletal muscle sphincter
taenia coli
three separate longitudinal ribbons of smooth muscle on the
outside of the ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid
colons. The teniae coli contracts length wise to produce the
haustra, the bulges in the colon
Liver
Largest gland in the body
2 lobes
larger right side
separating ligament
smaller left lobe
Right lobe has 2 smaller lobes
Quadrate
Transverse fissure between
Caudate
Lobules have chords/strands of hepatic cells that radiate out from central vein
Sinusoids replace typical capillaries
For filtering
The liver receives a dual blood supply from the hepatic portal vein and hepatic arteries
Hepatic portal vein carries venous blood drained from the spleen, GI tract, and its associated organs.
Hepatic arteries supply arterial blood to the liver
Blood flows through the sinusoids and empties into the central vein of each lobule. The central veins combine into hepatic veins, which leave the liver and empty into the inferior vena cava
Central vein à hepatic vein à IVC
Kupffer Cells
specialized macrophages located in the liver lining the walls of the sinusoids that form part of the reticuloendothelial system (RES)
The cords of hepatic cells (hypatocytes) produce Bile
Route of bile
1. canaliculi
2. ducts
3. Right or Left Hepatic Duct
4. Common Hepatic Duct
Joins with the Gall bladders Cystic Duct
5. Common Bile Duct
& Pancreatic Duct from pancreas
6. Hepatopancreatic Duct
7. Ampulla of Vater OR hepatopancreatic ampulla
8. The Sphincter of Oddi
controls the introduction of bile and pancreatic secretions into the duodenum, as well as preventing the entry of duodenal contents into the Ampulla
Gall Bladder
Mucous membrane lined
Muscular sac
Stores and concentrates bile
Smooth muscle contractions move bile out
Pancreas
12~17cm
behind the stomach
in fron the of the IVC, Aorta & left Kidney
Retroperitoneal
Soft oblong tubuloasinar gland
Fits into greater curvature of the stomach
Mixed gland
Partially exocrine & endocrine
Exocrine
Pancreatic juices
Acini cell
Endocrine
Glucagon
Insulin
Few others
Respiratory system to follow
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